Cosmology 2

Tycho Brahe's detailed naked eye observations of the heavens provided the data that Kepler used to derive his laws of planetary motion. Kepler's laws of planetary made it possible for the first time for humans to understand the paths of the "wanderers" across the sky.

• Kepler's First Law Planets orbit the Sun along elliptical paths, with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse.
• Kepler's Second Law (Law of Equal Areas) The area swept out by the line joining a planet and the Sun is equal for equal intervals of time.
• Kepler's Third Law (Harmonic Law) The square of the orbital period in years equals the cube of the length of the semi major (half the longer) axis of the orbit.

A consequence of Kepler's second law is that planets orbit more slowly the more distant they are from the Sun. The third law enables the period of a planet, comet, or asteroid to be computed once observations establish the length of the semi major axis of its orbit. These laws were among the greatest quantitative achievements of the Renaissance.

Kepler also observed a supernova, only 32 years after Tycho, in 1604. The next supernova visible to the naked eye did not occur until 1987 when a star exploded in the nearby irregular galaxy known as the Large Magellanic Cloud.

Kepler and Galileo were contemporaries, though Kepler was more of a theorist and Galileo was primarily an observer. Galileo was the first to make serious scientific use of the telescope, an instrument which provided observations that challenged the Ptolemaic model of the heavens. (Kepler was unable to afford to purchase a telescope, a prohibitively expensive device at the time, though he was able to borrow one for a summer from a visiting nobleman. Galileo promised for several years to make a telescope for Kepler, but never got around to fulfilling his promise.) Galileo observed craters on the Moon, demonstrating that it was not a perfect, smooth sphere; he also gave the large lunar plains the name of "maria" (seas) because he thought they might be filled with water. He also found that the Milky Way was not a solid band of light but was filled with myriad stars, too small to be resolved by the unaided eye. Another key observation by Galileo was that Venus went through a full cycle of phases, just like the Moon; this was impossible in the Ptolemaic model but was required by the Copernican model, since Venus is between the Earth and the Sun in the latter. But one of Galileo's most important discoveries was of the four largest satellites of Jupiter, now called the Galilean moons. These bodies demonstrated that the Earth was not the only center of motion in the universe, thus refuting one of the important tenets of Ptolemaic-Aristotelian cosmology and physics.

These new observations challenged the Aristotelean notions of motion. Reconciling the new cosmology with the physics of motion required Galileo to study mechanics. From direct observation and careful reasoning, he was able to arrive at the conclusion that all bodies fall at the same rate, if air resistance is negligible. This principle, now called the equivalence principle, is one of the foundations of the general theory of relativity. Galileo also realized that motion might not be easily detectable by observers partaking of that motion, i.e., that motion is relative. This meant it was possible for us to be on a moving Earth, yet unaware of its motion. Galileo never succeeded in working out the full laws of motion. But a few months after Galileo's death, Isaac Newton was born on a farm in Lincolnshire, England, beginning a life that would complete the Copernican Revolution with the fundamental laws of physics and gravitation that govern the universe under most conditions.

In thinking about the development of life on the Earth, as well as the implications of the Copernican principle. This is discussed in greater detail in this page about the likelihood of

 

The laws of physics provide the foundation for a particular cosmology. By the same token, discoveries about the nature of the universe must be consistent with the laws of physics. The heliocentric cosmology of Copernicus, as clarified by Kepler, led to the need for a new theory of motion. Newtonian mechanics, in turn, created a new vision for the cosmos, the Newtonian "clockwork" universe. Discoveries made toward the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th centuries led to the new physics of Einstein, and, in turn, to the modern Big Bang cosmology.

A question:

Is there other life in the universe? How can we begin to answer that question, in the absence of direct evidence to answer the question in the affirmative? One way is through something known as the Drake equation, named after the astronomer Frank Drake. It is not really an equation to be solved, so much as it is a way of systematizing the unknowns. Here is how it works. Let us say we wish to estimate the quantity N, the number of technological civilizations in the galaxy. Of the n stars in the galaxy, only some fraction   f_p of them will have planets. Only some average number of planets per star, (H), will be potentially habitable. Of the habitable planets, there is a fraction   f_l that will develop life. Now of the planets that develop life, how many will develop intelligent life? Use   f_i  for that fraction. Only some fraction of intelligent species   f_t will develop technology. So given all these things, we can write

N = n ×   f_p  ×   H  ×   f_l  ×   f_i  ×   f_t 

Some of these factors are easier to estimate than others. There are about 100 billion stars in the Milky Way so we will use that for n. There now seems to be some direct evidence for planets around other stars, but as yet we still don't know what fraction of stars would have planets. If we are optimistic, then we would take a fraction near one, essentially saying that all stars have planets. What number of planets per star would be habitable? The planets would have to be located at a distance from their star that is neither too hot nor too cold. In our solar system there are three that are potentially habitable, Venus, Mars, and the Earth. Some stars would support fewer, or possibly no, habitable planets. Let's say that, on average, only one in 10 stars with planets has one planet that could support life. What have we got so far?

N = 100,000,000,000 × 1 × 0.1 ×   f_l  ×   f_i  ×   f_t 

This still leaves a lot of potentially life-bearing planets!

The next three fractions are the especially tricky ones. If life can develop, does it? Opinions differ widely on this topic. This is where the issue of whether or not there is life on Mars or on some other body in the solar system has some application. If life developed on both Mars and the Earth and it becomes much more problematic to say that life is incredibly difficult to get started on any given planet. If you believe life is inevitable, given habitable conditions, then make   f_l =1.

Now, if life forms, does it become intelligent? A difficult question. Life has been around on Earth for billions of years and we (modern humans) came on the scene only in the last 100,000 or so years. And any life on Mars that may have once existed (if it did) died out completely. For purposes of an estimate, let's take the ratio of 100,000 years of humans to 1 billion years of life, giving us 1 in 10,000 planets with life that develop intelligence.

Does intelligent life inevitably develop technology? Good arguments can be made either way. There doesn't seem to be anything particularly inevitable about humanity's rise to technological prowess. Although it happened rapidly once it got going, did it have to happen? Could an intelligent creature stay as a hunter/gatherer or simple tool-user for the entire length of its existence? Who knows? Let's adopt the attitude that intelligence necessarily leads to technology and say that   f_t  = 1. So we have

N = 100,000,000,000 × 1 × 0.1 × 1 × 0.0001 × 1 = 1,000,000

One million planets with technologies!

OK, we stacked the deck by choosing all the optimistic numbers. Go back and put in some numbers of your own. You only have to insert one pessimistic number to drop the number of planets in the Milky Way down to around 1, which would be the Earth. For example, humanity has been technological for only 100 out of its 100,000 years of existence. If you find the thought of a low number of life-bearing planets depressing, that we might be alone in the Milky Way, bear in mind that there are more galaxies in the visible universe, than there are stars in our galaxy. So if there were only one life bearing planet in each galaxy there would still be trillions of life bearing planets. But we will never communicate with or visit other galaxies.

And how likely are life-bearing planets that can lead to intelligent life? Do they require a large moon, such as the Earth has? Such double planets may well be rare, particularly if the Moon formed as the result of a huge impact early in the history of the solar system. Does intelligent life require dry land as well as oceans? What are the odds that the Earth would end up with both oceans and dry land (as opposed to all oceans or all dry land)? We don't really know, but once you start thinking about it, things become rather tricky quite rapidly.

So who knows? But it does tend to make you want treat our planet and its unique inhabitants with some respect. Source :  © 2005 John F Hawley

 

Cosmology 1

I seem to have been only like a boy playing on the seashore, and diverting myself in now and then finding a smoother pebble or a prettier shell than ordinary, whilst the great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me.
Isaac Newton


The grand aim of all science is to cover the greatest number of empirical facts by logical deduction from the smallest number of hypotheses or axioms.
Albert Einstein








COSMOLOGY



Nothing exists except atoms and empty space; everything else is opinion.
Democritus



A New Explanation
In the beginning there was neither space nor time as we know them, but shifting foam of strings and loops, as small as anything can be. Within the foam, all of space, time and energy mingled in a grand unification. But the foam expanded and cooled. And then there was gravity, and space and time, and a universe was created. There was a grand unified force that filled the universe with a false vacuum endowed with a negative pressure. This caused the universe to expand exceedingly rapidly against gravity. But this state was unstable, and did not last, and the true vacuum reappeared, the inflation stopped, and the grand unified force was gone forever. In its place were the strong and electroweak interactions, and enormous energy from the decay of the false vacuum. The universe continued to expand and cool, but at a much slower rate. Families of particles, matter and antimatter, rose briefly to prominence and then died out as the temperature fell below that required to sustain them. Then the electromagnetic and the weak interaction were cleaved, and later the neutrinos were likewise separated from the photons. The last of the matter and antimatter annihilated, but a small remnant of matter remained. The first elements were created, reminders of the heat that had made them. And all this came to pass in three minutes, after the creation of time itself. Thereafter the universe, still hot and dense and opaque to light, continued to expand and cool. Finally the electrons joined to the nuclei, and there were atoms, and the universe became transparent. The photons which were freed at that time continue to travel even today as relics of the time when atoms were created, but their energy drops ever lower. And a billion years passed after the creation of the universe, and then the clouds of gas collapsed from their own gravity, and the stars shone and there were galaxies to light the universe. And some galaxies harbored at their centers giant black holes, consuming much gas, and blazing with exceeding brightness. And still the universe expanded. And stars created heavy elements in their cores, and then they exploded, and the heavy elements went out into the universe. New stars form still and take into themselves the heavy elements from the generations that went before them.
And more billions of years passed, and one particular star formed, like many others of its kind that had already formed, and would form in the future. Around this star was a disk of gas and dust. And it happened that this star formed alone, with no companion close by to disrupt the disk, so the dust did condense, and formed planets, and numerous smaller objects. And the third planet was the right size and the right distance from its star so that rain fell upon the planet and did not boil away, nor did it freeze. And this water made the planet warm, but not too warm, and was yet a good solvent, and many compounds formed. And some of these compounds could make copies of themselves. And these compounds made a code that could be copied and passed down to all the generations. And then there were cells, and they were living. And billions of years elapsed with only the cells upon the planet. Then some of the cells joined together and made animals which lived in the seas of the planet. And finally some cells from the water began to live upon the rocks of the land, and they joined together and made plants. And the plants made oxygen, and other creatures from the seas began to live upon the land. And many millions of years passed, and multitudes of creatures lived, of diverse kinds, each kind from another kind. And a kind of animal arose and spread throughout the planet, and this animal walked upon two feet and made tools. And it began to speak, and then it told stories of itself, and last it told this story. But all things must come to their end, and after many billions of years, the star will swell up and swallow the third planet, and all will be destroyed in the fire of the star. And we know not how the universe will end, but it may expand forever, and finally all the stars will die and the universe will end in eternal darkness and cold.
Source : © 1998, 2005 OUP; © 2005 John F Hawley
It is a capital mistake to theorize before one has data. -Sherlock Holmes
The glorious Sun, stays in his course, and plays the alchemist
Shakespeare, King John, III, 1

We begin with the mythological roots of cosmology, but our overriding theme will be that modern cosmology is not just today's creation myth. The historical development of the scientific method, the tremendous improvements in our data gathering abilities, and the development of physical theory set the modern cosmological picture apart......

The steps in formulating and testing scientific hypotheses: The process of induction leads to a general principle consistent with the observations. From this principle one can deduce what specific events should follow. The process is continuous as better and better hypotheses are developed.

The scientific method has very specific rules. It is based on objective data, observations that are independent of who made those observations. Once sufficient data are collected, a hypothesis is framed to explain and unify them. In order to be regarded as scientific, the hypothesis must meet at minimum five characteristics: it must be relevant, testable, consistent, simple, and have explanatory power. Of these, the quality of testability particularly defines the scientific method. A hypothesis that does not contain the potential to be falsified is not scientific. Once a hypothesis has met success at explaining data and has proven itself useful in predicting new phenomena, it is generally called a theory.
What are examples of cosmological questions?
What are examples of common themes within cosmological mythology?
Can you find an example of an uncommon cosmological theme or concept in a mythological story?
The Aristotelian cosmological system was consistent with his physics. Although Aristotle's cosmology is quite different from the modern point of view, in what ways is it consistent with modern ideas? How did it differ?
During the Renaissance, humanity's cosmological model changed dramatically. The first blow in the "Scientific Revolution" was struck by Copernicus, whose Sun-centered model of the heavens gained rapid ascendancy in Renaissance Europe. What were some of the motivations for Copernicus to propose such a grand change to the prevailing concepts of the universe?
Tycho Brahe's observations of a supernova that appeared in 1572 helped to end the belief in the Aristotelean unchanging perfection of the celestial realm. How would you feel if you observed something that so challenged a basic tenet of your world view? In Tycho's own words:
Amazed, and as if astonished and stupefied, I stood still, gazing for a certain length of time with my eyes fixed intently upon it and noticing that same star placed close to the stars which antiquity attributed to Cassiopeia. When I had satisfied myself that no star of that kind had ever shone forth before, I was led into such perplexity by the unbelievability of the thing that I began to doubt the faith of my own eyes.

..........................

Cancer du poumon

Au nom de mon père :

 

Azadeh Boujmehrani  30.12.2005

 

Il est du véritable amour comme de l’apparition des esprits : tout le monde en parle, mais peu de gens en ont vu. ….. (François de la Roche Foucauld).

 

 

 

D’abord il faut faire la connaissance avec la définition de Cancer et les causes du cancer du poumon :

 

La définition de Cancer :

 

Maladie qui a pour cause une multiplication incontrôlée des cellules.

 

Chez une personne en bonne santé, le nombre de cellules et leur spécialisation est contrôlé par l’organisme. Chez une personne atteinte d'un cancer, les cellules malades échappent à tout contrôle, se multiplient de façon anarchique et perdent leur spécificité. Dans certains cas, elles peuvent migrer vers d’autres endroits de l’organisme et continuer à s'y développer (on parle de métastase).

 

Cellules : La cellule est l’unité de base de tous les organismes vivants. Un organisme vivant peut être fait d'une seule cellule : c’est le cas des bactéries mais aussi de certains animaux et végétaux. Un homme de taille moyenne en contient de 60 000 à 100 000 milliards. La cellule se nourrit, produit de l'énergie, échange des informations avec son entourage, se multiplie et meurt au bout d'un certain temps.

 

Cellules anormales qui se multiplient de façon incontrôlée. Elles finissent par former une masse qu'on appelle tumeur.

Tumeur maligne formée par la multiplication désordonnée de cellules d'un tissu ou d'un organe, et dont certaines cellules se détachent pour former d'autres tumeurs, les métastases.

 

Tumeur maligne formée par la multiplication désordonnée de cellules. Terme dérivé du grec KARKINOS (crabe). Prend sa connotation de tumeur maligne à la fin du XVièm siècle (cancer, cancre, chancre). L'adjectif cancéreux date du milieu du XVIII siècle

 

Se caractérise par l'apparition de tumeurs malignes constituées par la prolifération anarchique et indéfinie des cellules d'un tissu. Les cellules tumorales sont des cellules transformées suite à des anomalies génétiques.
Ces cellules peuvent migrer dans des tissus voisins et y former des métastases.

 

Tumeurs : Excroissance de tissu provoquée par la prolifération anormale de certaines cellules proliférant plus rapidement que les cellules voisines.
Amas de cellules. Une tumeur peut être bénigne ou maligne.

 

Prolifération : Division incontrôlée et excessive de cellules qui donne naissance à une tumeur. La plupart des cellules se renouvellent « normalement » au cours de la vie en fonction des besoins de l'organisme. Parfois toutefois, ce renouvellement échappe au contrôle de l'organisme.

 

Tissu : Ensemble de cellules de structure semblable, spécialisées dans une même fonction (par exemple conduction nerveuse ou contraction musculaire).

 

Anomalies : Une anomalie désigne tout phénomène qui s'éloigne de ce qui est considéré comme normal.

 

Génétiques : Science de l'hérédité. La génétique étudie les caractères héréditaires des individus, leur transmission au fil des générations et leurs variations (mutations). C'est l'étude de cette transmission héréditaire qui a permis l'établissement des lois de Mendel.

DÉFINITION L'appareil respiratoire

L'appareil respiratoire comprend le nez, les fosses nasales, le pharynx, le larynx, la trachée, les bronches et les poumons. On distingue deux types de respiration l'interne (tissus) et l'externe (poumons).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

FONCTIONS

L'appareil respiratoire est responsable de l'apport d'oxygène au corps et de l'élimination du gaz carbonique contenu dans le sang. Nous emmagasinons de l'air frais lorsque nous inspirons, tandis que nous rejetons de l'air vicié lorsque nous expirons. Nous parlons de respiration externe quand des échanges de gaz carbonique et d'oxygène ont lieu dans les poumons. La respiration interne survient, quant à elle, lorsque l'oxygène acheminé par le sang depuis les poumons est échangé dans les tissus contre le gaz carbonique. Un adulte a une capacité de 3 à 4 litres d'air. Au repos, l'être humain respire 12 à 15 fois par minute et jusqu'à 25 fois lors d'activités physiques intenses.

 

 

LE CANCER DU POUMON

Les Poumons Les poumons sont une paire d'organes en forme de cône qui sont situés à l'intérieur de la poitrine. Les poumons amènent l'oxygène dans le corps et enlèvent le gaz carbonique, qui est rejeté par les cellules du corps. Des tubes appelés 'bronches' forment l'intérieur des poumons. Vos poumons possèdent un réseau étendu de vaisseaux sanguins et de vaisseaux lymphatiques. Des cellules cancéreuses peuvent se développer dans ces vaisseaux et être transportées par le sang ou par la lymphe pour être déposées ailleurs dans le corps. Le cancer peut aller des poumons à presque n'importe quel endroit du corps. Le plus souvent, il va au cerveau, aux os, à la moelle et au foie. Le cancer du poumon prend beaucoup d'années à se développer. C'est le deuxième cancer le plus commun chez les femmes.

Il existe deux types de cancer du poumon - le cancer du poumon à petites cellules et le cancer du poumon non à petites cellules. Ces différents types croissent et s'étendent par différentes voies. Le cancer du poumon à petites cellules est une maladie dans laquelle des cellules cancéreuses se trouvent dans les tissus des poumons. On le trouve habituellement chez les personnes qui fument ou qui ont fumé.

Le cancer du poumon non à petites cellules est une maladie commune que l'on trouve habituellement chez les personnes ayant fumé, chez les personnes exposées au tabagisme passif ou exposées au radon (un gaz radioactif).

SIGNES ET SYMPTÔMES

Ceux-ci peuvent inclure:
- voix rauque - toux persistante - sang dans votre flegme - essouflement
- douleur dans la poitrine - perte d'appétit - difficultés pour avaler - faiblesse - paleur
- température élevée - enflures aux articulations - douleur ou faiblesse osseuse - perte de poids

Le tabagisme cause 85% des cas de cancer du poumon. La fumée de cigarette contient plus de
4 000 produits chimiques différents, dont beaucoup sont des carcinogènes prouvés (c'est à dire des composants reconnus pour causer le cancer). Le cancer de poumon se produit le plus souvent chez des personnes âgées de plus de 50 ans et qui ont une longue histoire de tabagisme.

FACTEURS DE RISQUE

• Le risque de cancer du poumon augmente avec le nombre de cigarettes fumées par jour.
• En outre, plus l'âge auquel le tabagisme a commencé tôt, plus le risque de cancer du poumon est grand.
• Le tabagisme passif est également reconnu pour augmenter le risque.
• Plus rarement, l'exposition à certaines substances industrielles, telles que l'arsenic, certains produits chimiques organiques et l'amiante.
• Exposition à des radiations qui se trouvent dans certains milieux professionnels et médicaux, et dans certains environnements.

EXAMENS

Si le patient a une toux persistante qui produit du flegme, le flegme sera examiné pour voir si on y trouve des cellules cancéreuses.
Le docteur peut demander une radiographie de la poitrine ou une imagerie par rayons X spécifique (tel qu'un scanner) pour localiser toutes les tâches anormales dans les poumons. Une bronchoscopie peut être faite. Une bronchoscope est un petit tube passé par le nez ou par la bouche, et qui atteint les bronches au fond de la gorge. Au cours de cet examen, le docteur peut également obtenir une biopsie ou tout autre échantillon des tissus du poumon pour y rechercher des cellules cancéreuses. De la pression est ressentie pendant cet examen mais très rarement de la douleur.

TRAITEMENT

La chirurgie peut traiter le cancer du poumon. Elle est utilisée dans les premiers stades de la maladie.

La radiothérapie peut également être utilisée avec la chimiothérapie et parfois avec la chirurgie pour soulager la douleur.

La chimiothérapie peut être utilisée:

• avec la thérapie radiologique;
• avec la chirurgie;
• à des stades plus avancés du cancer;
• à tous les stades du cancer à petites cellules. .

Tumeur
Symptôme
Métastases

Les autres facteurs de risque

Les fumeurs qui ont leur activité ciliaire endommagée sont d’autant plus fragilisés lorsqu’ils sont exposés à d’autres facteurs de risque tels :

• l’amiante,
• la pollution,
• le chrome,
• le nickel,
• le goudron,
• le gaz radioactif dénommé radon.

Le tabagisme passif constitue depuis de récentes études un risque non-négligeable de cancer chez les non-fumeurs, en particulier la femme et les jeunes enfants.

En effet, l’exposition prolongée à la fumée à la maison ou au travail peut accroître le risque de cancer des poumons chez les non-fumeurs.

PRÉVENTION

ARRÊTEZ DE FUMER

1. Essayez d'éviter le tabagisme passif ou par personne interposée.
2. Renseignez-vous sur l'environnement dans lequel vous travaillez pour savoir si vous êtes exposé à des fumées ou à des poussières industrielles car celles-ci peuvent être très dangereuses

Azadeh Bojmehrani  30.12.2005

 

Apollo data information

Apollo 11, 373°K, dry igneous sample  [3]
frequence (hz)	e'	loss tan	e''
10²	13	0.11	1.43
10^3	12	0.83	9.96
10^4	11	0.69	7.59
10^5	10.5	0.61	6.405
10^6	10.3	0.6	6.18
10^7	10	0.63	6.3

 

Apollo 14, 373°K,plagioclase anorthosique, differents pyroxène+olivine+ilménite+troilite et fer métallique [4]
frequence (hz)			e'	loss tan			e''
10²			6.4	0.003			0.0192
10^3			6.3	0.005			0.0315
10^4			6.2	0.008			0.0496
10^5			6.1	0.009			0.0549
10^6			6	0.012			0.072
10^7			5.9	0.014			0.0826
Apollo 17, soil sample with black cindery glass,agglutinates,breccia;12,compo?, à 100°C [5]
frequence (hz)	e'	loss tan			e''
2.10²	3.3	0.03			0.099
7.10²	3.27	0.032			0.10464
10^3	3.25	0.03			0.0975
2.10^3	3.23	0.02			0.0646			d'apres graphique
7.10^3	3.2	0.01			0.032
10^4	3.175	0.096			0.3048
2.10^4	3.17	0.093			0.29481
7.10^4	3.16	0.09			0.2844
10^5	3.15	0.08			0.252

 

 

 

Echantillon 72441,12, densité plus elevé (+) et moins (-) et echantillon 15301,38 (++) et (- -) [6]
frequence (kHz)	e'	loss tan	e''
1(-)	3.11	0.015	0.04665
1(+)	3.42	0.016	0.05472
1(- -)	3.51	0.013	0.04563
1(++)	4.08	0.013	0.05304
10(-)	3.06	0.008	0.02448	d'apres tableau de données...plus fiable!
10(+)	3.38	0.009	0.03042
10(- -)	3.45	0.015	0.05175
10(++)	4.02	0.015	0.0603
100(-)	3.04	0.004	0.01216
100(+)	3.35	0.005	0.01675
100(- -)	3.42	0.013	0.04446
100(++)	3.98	0.012	0.04776

 

 

 

 

Apollo 15, à 330°K [7]
freq (Hz)	e'	loss tan	e''
10²	3.86	0.11	0.4246
10^3	3.49	0.046	0.16054
10^4	3.35	0.017	0.05695
10^5	3.29	0.0052	0.017108
10^6	__	__

 

 

 

 

Apollo 17, lunar soil,different % de TiO2 et FeO--> pas fait car pas meme temperature (que la lune) [8]
Toutes missions apollo confondues --> representation surface lunaire
sample	freq(MHz)	e'	loss tan	e"
10017	1	8.8	0.075	0.66
10020	1	10	0.13	1.3
1022	450	4.2	0.06	0.252
1046	1	9	0.05	0.45
10084	1	3.8	0.0175	0.0665
12002	1	9	0.05	0.45
12063	1	7	0.025	0.175
				0
12070	1	3	0.025	0.075
14301	1	4.8	0.05	0.24
14318	1	5.97	0.082	0.48954
14321	1	5.28	0.0123	0.064944
14310	450	6.5	0.00454	0.02951
14163	1	2.3	0.0006	0.00138
15459	1	6.62	0.005	0.0331
15498	450	5.45	0.008	0.0436
15597	450	6.2	0.0022	0.01364
15065	1	6.7	0.01	0.067
15555	1	6.15	0.0252	0.15498
15021	450	2.2	0.00418	0.009196
15041	450	2.5	0.00486	0.01215
15211	450	2.45	0.00389	0.0095305
15221	450	2.55	0.00274	0.006987
15301	1	3.2	0.0008	0.00256
15601	450	3.3	0.00251	0.008283
60015	1	6.6	0.0002	0.00132
61016	1	7.82	0.016	0.12512
60017	450	6.3	0.024	0.1512
65015	1	7	0.008	0.056
62236	1	6.52	0.006	0.03912
61500	450	1.96	0.00277	0.0054292
62240	450	2.4	0.00364	0.008736
62241	1	2.4	0.001	0.0024
63501	450	1.7	0.00161	0.002737
66041	1	2.7	0.002	0.0054
66014	450	1.6	0.0025	0.004
66081	1	2.8	0.001	0.0028
67601	450	1.9	0.0029	0.00551
72441	1	3.05	0.005	0.01525
74220	1	2.6	0.019	0.0494
74241	1	2.2	0.01	0.022
75081	1	3.5	0.01	0.035

  [3]Apollo11: http://www.springerlink.com/content/wrn66716671v6n02/fulltext.pdf

       [4]Apollo14: http://mars.mines.edu/pub/72DPApollo14.pdf

       [5]Apollo17: http://mars.mines.edu/pub/75StressTDDPLunarSamples.pdf

       [6]Echantillon 72441 : http://mars.mines.edu/pub/75StressTDDPLunarSamples.pdf

       [7]Apollo15: http://mars.mines.edu/pub/72FreqTempApollo.pdf

       [8]Apollo17: http://mars.mines.edu/pub/73EMagApollo17.pdf                                                                                                       http://mars.mines.edu/pub/75DP100mMoon.pdf

[9]Paper Nb : E06504.

My Project in NASA

LUNAR RADAR PROJECT

 

Azadeh BOJMEHRANI, Charlène BERTELOOT, David GANEM, Florent GABRIELS –2006

 

See my full project here : Anti Big Bang

 

 

L’un des buts scientifiques essentiels des missions lunaires, était la collecte d’échantillons de roches à et sous la surface lunaire, afin de déterminer la composition chimique et l’origine de notre satellite.

Le programme  spatial Apollo a permis d’amasser environ 380 Kg de roches lunaires en six expéditions, entre juillet 1969 et décembre 1972.D’autres échantillons ont été rapportés par le programme Luna à partir de septembre 1970. Pour éviter leur altération au contact e l’aire, ces enceints sèches et stériles, sous atmosphère d’azote.

Leur analyse en laboratoire n’a relevé aucun fossile, aucun matériau organique. La composition chimique de la croûte lunaire diffère sensiblement de celle de la terre : elle est pauvre en éléments volatils comme le potassium, le sodium ou le bismuth, et relativement riche en matériaux réfractaires (Aluminium, calcium,..)

Qui ne s’évaporent qu’a très haute température….La datation de toutes ces roches par la méthode du carbone 14  leur fixe un age allant de 3 à 4.5 milliards d’années. [1].

 

De quelles roches la croûte lunaire est –elle composée ?!

Les roches lunaires sont beaucoup moins diverses que celles que l’on trouve sur Terre. On distingue essentiellement trois types de roches : des basaltes dans les mers, des anorthoses, et une roche aux minéraux très particuliers appelée kreep (K pour potassium, REE pour terres rares « rare earth elements »an anglais, P pour phosphore) abondantes dans les régions montagneuses. Le manteau de la Lune contient beaucoup d’olivine* (50% d’olivine parmi les échantillons d’Apollo-12) et de pyroxène** (53% dans les échantillons d’Apollo-11). [2]

 

Y a-t-il de l’eau sur la lune ?

Si effectivement l’eau n’est pas présente sous forme liquide, elle existe cependant en abondance sous forme de glace. Les sondes Clementine (1994) puis Lunar Prospector (1998) ont confirmé la présence de glace dans les régions polaires que le soleil n’éclaire jamais. [2]

 

Minéraux

Trois minéraux, parmi les 75 variétés découvertes grâce à l’étude des roches lunaires, n’avaient jamais observés avant. De nouveaux noms ont été créés pour eux. Il s’agit de la tranquillyite (minéral trouvé dans la mer de la Tranquillité), du pyroxferroite (silicate de fer et de calcium), et de l’armalcolite (du nom des trois premiers astronautes ARMstrong, Aldrin, COLlins), titanate de fer et de magnésium. Depuis on a découvert de l’armalcolite dans des mines de diamants d’Amérique du sud…. [2]

 

Apollo 11, 373°K, dry igneous sample  [3]
frequence (hz)	e'	loss tan	e''
10²	13	0.11	1.43
10^3	12	0.83	9.96
10^4	11	0.69	7.59
10^5	10.5	0.61	6.405
10^6	10.3	0.6	6.18
10^7	10	0.63	6.3

 

Apollo 14, 373°K,plagioclase anorthosique, differents pyroxène+olivine+ilménite+troilite et fer métallique [4]
frequence (hz)			e'	loss tan			e''
10²			6.4	0.003			0.0192
10^3			6.3	0.005			0.0315
10^4			6.2	0.008			0.0496
10^5			6.1	0.009			0.0549
10^6			6	0.012			0.072
10^7			5.9	0.014			0.0826
Apollo 17, soil sample with black cindery glass,agglutinates,breccia;12,compo?, à 100°C [5]
frequence (hz)	e'	loss tan			e''
2.10²	3.3	0.03			0.099
7.10²	3.27	0.032			0.10464
10^3	3.25	0.03			0.0975
2.10^3	3.23	0.02			0.0646			d'apres graphique
7.10^3	3.2	0.01			0.032
10^4	3.175	0.096			0.3048
2.10^4	3.17	0.093			0.29481
7.10^4	3.16	0.09			0.2844
10^5	3.15	0.08			0.252

 

 

 

Echantillon 72441,12, densité plus elevé (+) et moins (-) et echantillon 15301,38 (++) et (- -) [6]
frequence (kHz)	e'	loss tan	e''
1(-)	3.11	0.015	0.04665
1(+)	3.42	0.016	0.05472
1(- -)	3.51	0.013	0.04563
1(++)	4.08	0.013	0.05304
10(-)	3.06	0.008	0.02448	d'apres tableau de données...plus fiable!
10(+)	3.38	0.009	0.03042
10(- -)	3.45	0.015	0.05175
10(++)	4.02	0.015	0.0603
100(-)	3.04	0.004	0.01216
100(+)	3.35	0.005	0.01675
100(- -)	3.42	0.013	0.04446
100(++)	3.98	0.012	0.04776

 

 

 

 

Apollo 15, à 330°K [7]
freq (Hz)	e'	loss tan	e''
10²	3.86	0.11	0.4246
10^3	3.49	0.046	0.16054
10^4	3.35	0.017	0.05695
10^5	3.29	0.0052	0.017108
10^6	__	__

 

 

 

 

Apollo 17, lunar soil,different % de TiO2 et FeO--> pas fait car pas meme temperature (que la lune) [8]
Toutes missions apollo confondues --> representation surface lunaire